Shooting conditions
- Kangaroo are not farmed. They are wildlife, shot at night on private landholdings where landowners engage commercial shooters to remove kangaroos on their properties.
- Kangaroos are shot in conditions where contamination of kangaroo meat is logistically unavoidable. There is no oversight in the field [1] where the basic butchering and gutting of shot kangaroos is done by the shooter in rural and isolated areas across Australia.
- Gutting (field dressed) is when contamination is likely to occur due to spillage from the intestines.[2] Field dressing in the kangaroo industry is unregulated and done without supervision. [3]
- Other exported games industries such as in South Africa and Namibia regulate game meat hygiene by permitting gutting only in the presence of certified butchers.[4],[5]
- In Australia shooters only have to undertake a 6 hour online course with a "short open-book, multiple choice assessment" and a telephone assessment to gain accreditation in field dressing kangaroos.
- Shot kangaroos are “transported in the open air, gathering dust and flies.”[6] Shot kangaroos may be stored in field chillers and not transported to processors for up to 14 days after being shot.[7]
- In April 2015 documents obtained under freedom of information laws revealed that in one year alone the NSW Food Authority found numerous hygiene compliance breaches including chillers contaminated with old blood; dirty floors, walls and ceiling; lack of water and soap for handwashing; carcasses hung from rusty hooks; and live animals being allowed to roam around the chiller area.[8]
Health risks
- As wild-shot wildlife, kangaroos carry many parasites and diseases that can threaten human health. [9]
- There have been mass mortality events of up to 300,000 kangaroos in commercially killed kangaroo populations due to a number of pathogens whose impact on humans is unknown.[10],[11],[12],[13],[14],[15] Concerns about the cause of these deaths and their risks to human consumption of kangaroo meat have never been answered.
- During a mortality epidemic in December 2016 an ex-departmental vet expressed surprise "at the slow response from industry stakeholders" and concern that government agencies had not been able to or prepared to investigate the epidemic, and that "implications are concerning not just for kangaroo meat industry, but the [Australian] meat industry in general.
- Within Australia kangaroo meat for human consumption is not tested for known kangaroo zoonotic pathogens such as Toxoplasma gondii[16], which is a recognised serious long-term human health risk.
- Kangaroos carry Salmonella, and meat intended for human and pet food consumption has been associated with high rates of Salmonella contamination for some time[17],[18]. In 2014, dried kangaroo meat pet food products were recalled in the United States due to the risk of Salmonella contamination.[19] In 2020 dog food containing kangaroo was recalled due to Salmonella contamination. [19b]
- Previous to current hygiene practices, 44.9% and 33.2% of kangaroo meat samples imported to Japan were contaminated with Salmonella spp.[20]
- The industry now advises its shooters to spray kangaroo carcasses with acetic acid in the field,[21] however Food Standards Australia New Zealand “is not aware of the extent of the use of acetic acid in the production of kangaroo meat” and “no maximum limits … are prescribed in the Code.”[22]
- It is recognised kangaroo industry workers are at risk from pathogenic Salmonella spp and other zoonotic pathogens.[23],[24]
- The Australian Government relies on export kangaroo processors to test and report on coliforms, Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Salmonella. Requirements for reporting are one sample per every 300 to 600 carcasses are tested for E.coli, coliforms and TVC (with a minimum of 1 per truck for field-dressed kangaroos). Just one sample per every 3,000 carcasses must be tested for Salmonella. [25]
- Australia does not test exported kangaroo meat for T.gondii, because “no market routinely tests or requires monitoring for Toxoplasma.”[26] T.gondii is known to cause significant morbidity and mortality in macropods.
- Toxoplasma gondii can cause serious disease in humans, and lifelong disabilities and brain damage in unborn babies . It cannot be cured, lies dormant in human bodies and may resurface later in life.[27] It can cause eye disease and blindness later in life, brain and heart inflammation, and may affect liver, spleen and the immune system. It is increasingly implicated in neurological conditions and schizophrenia.[28]
- Increasing consumption of kangaroo meat has been identified as a potential new source of Toxoplasmosis infection for consumers, and as such may be a significant long-term health risk. [29],[30],[31]. Toxoplasmosis is also "considered to be a leading cause of death in attributed to foodborne illness in... [and] one of the most neglected parasitic infections of the United States".
- In 1994 the Australian Department of Health directly attributed the “consumption of undercooked [kangaroo] meat”, to a domestic outbreak of T.gondii in 14 people which included one case of congenital toxoplasmosis in a baby later born. However T.gondii is not a notifiable disease in Australia.[32],[33]
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Burke,K (17 Nov 2009) Hygiene threatens kangaroo meat industry Brisbane Times
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- Between 2013 to 2015 four incidents of contaminated imported kangaroo meat were raised by the European Union and Russia: The Netherlands found Salmonella spp in frozen kangaroo meat, and E.coli in chilled kangaroo meat. Russia found excess total viable plate (aerobic and anaeorobic microoganisms) in kangaroo meat, and E.coli in frozen kangaroo meat.
- Ongoing testing of retail ready kangaroo meat at processing plants and supermarket shelves for E. coli and Salmonella spp shows unacceptable high counts of both pathogens, with repeated findings of contaminated kangaroo meat over many years. [40],[41],[42]
Read more here.
- Kangaroo meat has more L-carnitine per gram than any other red meat, and is associated with the build up of plaque in arteries which causes heart attacks, strokes and vascular disease.[43],[44] Executive Chairman of Obesity Australia and Professor of Medicine at Monash University (Australia) Professor John Funder was reported as saying “companies selling the meat may also have to reconsider how they market it, given that it is widely perceived to be healthier than other red meats.”[45]
- Parts of the pet food industry use sulphite preservatives in kangaroo meat to “mask signs of putrefaction”. High levels of sulfur dioxide causes brain damage and death in dogs and cats due to resulting thiamine deficiency.[46]
Banner Image: by David Cook / CC BY
Red Kangaroos: Osphranter rufus (reclassified from Macropus rufus)
Red Kangaroos: Osphranter rufus (reclassified from Macropus rufus)
REFERENCES
The authors of this website aim to provide cited and concise summaries of the research, science, data and history of kangaroos, condensed into accessible language to build knowledge capacity about kangaroos. Substantial research and expertise underwrites the content on this site so that you can use it with confidence that it is scientifically robust, carefully written, and that it stands up to scrutiny.
When you use, copy or paraphrase any content on this website please acknowledge our work, which we provide for your use, by referencing this source: Kangaroos at Risk (2015) www.kangaroosatrisk.org. See footer for citation options, and disclaimers.
When you use, copy or paraphrase any content on this website please acknowledge our work, which we provide for your use, by referencing this source: Kangaroos at Risk (2015) www.kangaroosatrisk.org. See footer for citation options, and disclaimers.
Shooting conditions
[1] RSPCA Australia A Survey of the Extent of Compliance with the Requirements of the Code of Practice for the Humane Shooting of Kangaroos (2002). S.4.4.1, Environment Australia, Australian Government. Available from < http://155.187.2.69/biodiversity/wildlife-trade/publications/kangaroo-report/introduction.html>
[2] Holds G, Pointon A, Lorimer M, Kiermeier A, Raven G, Sumner J. (2008) Microbial profiles of carcasses and minced meat from kangaroos processed in South Australia International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2008;123(1-2):88-92
[3] CSIRO (2007). Australian standard for the hygienic production of wild game meat for human consumption. Collingwood, CSIRO.
[4] Anon (2010). VPN/08/2010-01, National Directorate of Veterinary Quarantine and Public Health, Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.
[5] Van Schalkwyk, DL & Hoffman, LC (2010) Guidelines for the Harvesting of Game for Meat Export 2010. Namibia, Ministry of Environment and Tourism Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry.
[6] Cripps, S (18 Jan 2015) Final days for roo processing . Queensland Country Life. Quoting kangaroo processor John Burey. http://www.queenslandcountrylife.com.au/news/agriculture/general/news/final-days-for-roo-processing/2721195.aspx?storypage=0 [21 Aug 2015]
[7] Mawson,M Kangaroo Industry Wild Game Training Initiative, RIRDC. Appendix 1 National Kangaroo Harvester Hygienic Field Dressing Manual, 2010. pgs 7, 8 & 76 https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/downloads/11-123
[8] Carter R (March 10, 2015) NSW Kangaroo Meat Fails Test for Fundamental Food Safety Australian Institute of Food Safety, Australian Food Safety News. Available from <https://www.foodsafety.com.au/2015/03/nsw-kangaroo-meat-fails-tests-for-fundamental-food-safety/> [17 July 2015] See also: <http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/nsw-kangaroo-meat-fails-basic-hygiene-tests-20150304-13uyft.html#ixzz3j3HbdL9s>
Health risks
[9] Ladds P (undated) Pathology of Macropods Australian Registry of Wildlife Health, Taronga Conservation Society Australia. Available from <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259453951_Pathology_of_Macropods> [24 Sept 2017].
[10] Curran, G (1999) Investigations of a Major Epidemic Mortality in Macropods in northwestern NSW in October 1998, 26 August New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service.
[11] Hooper, PT, Lunt, RA et al (1999) Epidemic of Blindness in Kangaroos - Evidence of a Viral Aetiology Australian Veterinary Journal 77: 529-536.
[12] Lundie-Jenkins, G (1999) Draft response procedure for sporadic epidemic mortalities in macropod populations in Queensland Queensland Park and Wildlife Service
[13] Speare, R, Donovan, JA et al. (1989) Diseases of Free-ranging Macropodoidae. Kangaroos, Wallabies and Rat Kangaroos. G. Grigg, P. Jarman and I. Hume. New South Wales, Surrey Beattie and Sons Pty Ltd
[14] Speare, R, Johnson, PM et al (1990) Epidemic mortality in large macropods of central-western Queensland Unpublished report to the Queensland Department of Environment
[15] Speare, R, Johnson, PM et al. (1991) Epidemic mortality in large macropods of central Queensland during May 1990 Unpublished report to the National Parks and Wildlife Service, Queensland.
[16] Community Affairs Committee, Department of Health, Population Health, QoN 196 (Senator Rhiannon), Senate Estimates 2012-13, 20 November 2012. Available here.
[17] Australian Wildlife Health Network (undated) Salmonella in Australian Macropods FACT SHEET Australia Wildlife Health Network. Sydney, Australia. Available from < https://www.wildlifehealthaustralia.com.au/Portals/0/Documents/FactSheets/Mammals/Salmonella%20in%20Australian%20Macropods%20Jul%202009%20(1.2).pdf> [24 Sept 2017]
[18] Potter AS, Reid SA, Fenwick SG (2011) Prevalence of Salmonella in fecal samples of western grey kangaroos (Macropus fuliginosus). Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 2011;47(4):880-7.
[19] Food Safety News (31 Dec 2014) Kangaroo Meat Pet Treats Recalled for Potential Salmonella Risk. Avalable from <http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2014/12/jump-your-bones-kangaroo-meat-pet-treats-recalled-for-salmonella-risk/#.VdafNFWqqkq> [21 August 2015]
[19b] Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Dept Health and Human Services USA, Company Announcement Real Pet Food Company of Phoenix, AZ Voluntarily Recalls One Lot of Billy+Margot Wild Kangaroo and Superfoods Recipe Dog Food in 4 lb Bags Because of a Possible Salmonella Health Risk (USA). 22 Sept 2020. Available from <https://www.fda.gov/safety/recalls-market-withdrawals-safety-alerts/real-pet-food-company-phoenix-az-voluntarily-recalls-one-lot-billymargot-wild-kangaroo-and>
[20] Potter et al (2011)
[21] Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport Committee, Dept of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, QoN 232 (Senator Rhiannon), Budget Estimates 2012-13, October 2012, Australian Senate. Available from < http://www.aph.gov.au/~/media/Estimates/Live/rrat_ctte/estimates/sup_1213/daff/food_division.ashx> [21 Aug 2015]. See also Macro Investments (Macro Meats) Letter to shooters (19 May 2012). Available here. See also Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport Committee, Dept of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Food Division, QoN232 (Senator Heffernan), Supplementary Budget Estimates 2012-12, Oct 2012, Australian Senate [available here].
[22] Community Affairs Committee, Department of Health, Population Health, QoN 406 (Senator Rhiannon). Budget Estimates 2015-16, 2 June 2015, Australian Senate. Available from < http://www.aph.gov.au/~/media/Committees/clac_ctte/estimates/bud_1516/Health/Answers/SQ15-000406.pdf> [21 August 2015].
[23] Potter et al (2011)
[24] Parameswaran N, O’Handley RM, Grigg ME, Fenwick SG, Thompson RCA (2009) Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in wild kangaroos using an ELISA Parasitology International, Parasitology International. 2009; 58:161-5.
[25] Australian Government Department of Agriculture. (29 March 2010) Meat Notice 2010/02 – Microbiological Testing of Wild Game Carcases and Products. Available from <www.agriculture.gov.au/SiteCollectionDocuments/aqis/exporting/meat/elmer3/index/methods-microbiological-test-meat/manual-microbiological-programs.pdf
> [24 Sept 2017]
[26] Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, answer to question on notice 160(5b), Senate Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport Committee, Additional Budget Estimates February 2013. Available from < http://www.aph.gov.au/~/media/Estimates/Live/rrat_ctte/estimates/add_1213/DAFF/food.pdf> [21 Aug 2015]
[27] The University of Chicago, Medicine. Infectious Diseases Toxoplasmosis Centre. About Toxoplasmosis. <http://www.uchospitals.edu/specialties/infectious-diseases/toxoplasmosis/about.html> [24 Sept 2017]
[28] Torrey EF, Yolken RH (2003) T.gondiiplasma gondii and Schizophrenia. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 9:11, Nov 2013. Available from <http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/9/11/03-0143_article.htm> [17 Aug 2015]. see also The Stanley Medical Research Institute's Laboratory of Developmental Neurovirology, T.gondii-Schizophrenia Research: Available from <http://www.stanleyresearch.org/patient-and-provider-resources/toxoplasmosis-schizophrenia-research/> [24 May 2019]
[29] Tenter AM, Heckeroth AR, Weiss LM (2000) Toxoplasma gondii: from animals to humans International Journal for Parasitology, 2000; 30:12-13,1217-1258
[30] Parameswaran et al (2009)
[31] Tenter AM (2009) Toxoplasma gondii in animals used for human consumption Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz [online]. 2009, vol.104, n.2 [cited 2015-08-17], pp. 364-369 . Available from: <http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000200033&lng=en&nrm=iso >
[32] Robson JMB, Wood RN, Sullivan JJ, Nicolaides NJ, Lewis BR (1995) A probable foodborne outbreak of toxoplasmosis. Commun Dis Intell 19:517-522
[33] Food Standards Australia New Zealand Agents of Foodborne Illness, Toxoplasma gondii. Available from <https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/publications/Documents/Toxoplasma%20gondii%20-%20jan%202014.pdf > [17 Aug 2015]
[34] European Commission, (16 Dec 2002) Council Directive 2002/99/EC Animal Products - Meat Products. Available from <http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1440390723507&uri=CELEX:32002L0099> [24 Aug 2015]
[35] Roo meat still contaminated, says rights group Lateline, television program, ABC TV, 27 Aug 2012. Available from <http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2012/s3577170.htm> [17 August 2015]
[36] Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Exports Division, answer to question on notice 60, Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport Committee, Australian Senate Additional Budget Estimates February 2015. Available here.
[37] Federal Service for Veterinary and Phytosanitory Surveillance news (25 July 2013) The Rosselkhoznadzor Detained a Kangaroo Meat Consignment of a Questionable Quality <http://www.fsvps.ru/fsvps/news/7137.html?_language=en>
[38] Tapp,V Russia bans kangaroo meat due to unacceptable levels of E.coli ABC Rural News, 19 Aug 2014. <http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-08-18/kangaroo-meat-ban/5677656 >
[39] Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Exports Division, answer to Question on Notice 104, Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport Committee, Australian Senate Budget Estimates May 2015. Available here.
[40] Ezeglos S, Huang B, Stuttard E A Survey of the Microbiological Quality of Kangaroo Carcasses Processed for Human Consumption in Two Processing Plants in Queensland, Australia Journal of Food Protection 2007;70:1249-51
[41] Holds et al (2008)
[42] Ben-Ami pers comm
[43] Koeth et al (2013) Intestinal microbiota metabolism of l-carnitine, a nutrient in red meat, promotes atherosclerosis Nature Medicine, Advanced Online Publication, 8 April 2013. Available from <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3650111/> [24 Sept 2017]
[44] Australian Science Media Centre (5 April 2013) Round-up: Heart disease and red meat (Nature Medicine*) – experts respond <http://www.smc.org.au/round-up-heart-disease-and-red-meat-nature-medicine-experts-respond/>
[45] Medew J (8 April 2012) Kangaroo meat not as healthy as you think Sydney Morning Herald. Available at <http://www.smh.com.au/national/kangaroo-meat-not-as-healthy-as-you-think-20130408-2hgyx.html> [17 Aug 2015]
[46] Malik R & Sibraa D (2005) Thiamine deficiency due to sulphur dioxide preservative in ‘pet meat’ – a case of déjà vu Australian Veterinary Journal. 83:7 July 2005 408-411
[1] RSPCA Australia A Survey of the Extent of Compliance with the Requirements of the Code of Practice for the Humane Shooting of Kangaroos (2002). S.4.4.1, Environment Australia, Australian Government. Available from < http://155.187.2.69/biodiversity/wildlife-trade/publications/kangaroo-report/introduction.html>
[2] Holds G, Pointon A, Lorimer M, Kiermeier A, Raven G, Sumner J. (2008) Microbial profiles of carcasses and minced meat from kangaroos processed in South Australia International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2008;123(1-2):88-92
[3] CSIRO (2007). Australian standard for the hygienic production of wild game meat for human consumption. Collingwood, CSIRO.
[4] Anon (2010). VPN/08/2010-01, National Directorate of Veterinary Quarantine and Public Health, Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.
[5] Van Schalkwyk, DL & Hoffman, LC (2010) Guidelines for the Harvesting of Game for Meat Export 2010. Namibia, Ministry of Environment and Tourism Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry.
[6] Cripps, S (18 Jan 2015) Final days for roo processing . Queensland Country Life. Quoting kangaroo processor John Burey. http://www.queenslandcountrylife.com.au/news/agriculture/general/news/final-days-for-roo-processing/2721195.aspx?storypage=0 [21 Aug 2015]
[7] Mawson,M Kangaroo Industry Wild Game Training Initiative, RIRDC. Appendix 1 National Kangaroo Harvester Hygienic Field Dressing Manual, 2010. pgs 7, 8 & 76 https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/downloads/11-123
[8] Carter R (March 10, 2015) NSW Kangaroo Meat Fails Test for Fundamental Food Safety Australian Institute of Food Safety, Australian Food Safety News. Available from <https://www.foodsafety.com.au/2015/03/nsw-kangaroo-meat-fails-tests-for-fundamental-food-safety/> [17 July 2015] See also: <http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/nsw-kangaroo-meat-fails-basic-hygiene-tests-20150304-13uyft.html#ixzz3j3HbdL9s>
Health risks
[9] Ladds P (undated) Pathology of Macropods Australian Registry of Wildlife Health, Taronga Conservation Society Australia. Available from <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259453951_Pathology_of_Macropods> [24 Sept 2017].
[10] Curran, G (1999) Investigations of a Major Epidemic Mortality in Macropods in northwestern NSW in October 1998, 26 August New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service.
[11] Hooper, PT, Lunt, RA et al (1999) Epidemic of Blindness in Kangaroos - Evidence of a Viral Aetiology Australian Veterinary Journal 77: 529-536.
[12] Lundie-Jenkins, G (1999) Draft response procedure for sporadic epidemic mortalities in macropod populations in Queensland Queensland Park and Wildlife Service
[13] Speare, R, Donovan, JA et al. (1989) Diseases of Free-ranging Macropodoidae. Kangaroos, Wallabies and Rat Kangaroos. G. Grigg, P. Jarman and I. Hume. New South Wales, Surrey Beattie and Sons Pty Ltd
[14] Speare, R, Johnson, PM et al (1990) Epidemic mortality in large macropods of central-western Queensland Unpublished report to the Queensland Department of Environment
[15] Speare, R, Johnson, PM et al. (1991) Epidemic mortality in large macropods of central Queensland during May 1990 Unpublished report to the National Parks and Wildlife Service, Queensland.
[16] Community Affairs Committee, Department of Health, Population Health, QoN 196 (Senator Rhiannon), Senate Estimates 2012-13, 20 November 2012. Available here.
[17] Australian Wildlife Health Network (undated) Salmonella in Australian Macropods FACT SHEET Australia Wildlife Health Network. Sydney, Australia. Available from < https://www.wildlifehealthaustralia.com.au/Portals/0/Documents/FactSheets/Mammals/Salmonella%20in%20Australian%20Macropods%20Jul%202009%20(1.2).pdf> [24 Sept 2017]
[18] Potter AS, Reid SA, Fenwick SG (2011) Prevalence of Salmonella in fecal samples of western grey kangaroos (Macropus fuliginosus). Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 2011;47(4):880-7.
[19] Food Safety News (31 Dec 2014) Kangaroo Meat Pet Treats Recalled for Potential Salmonella Risk. Avalable from <http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2014/12/jump-your-bones-kangaroo-meat-pet-treats-recalled-for-salmonella-risk/#.VdafNFWqqkq> [21 August 2015]
[19b] Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Dept Health and Human Services USA, Company Announcement Real Pet Food Company of Phoenix, AZ Voluntarily Recalls One Lot of Billy+Margot Wild Kangaroo and Superfoods Recipe Dog Food in 4 lb Bags Because of a Possible Salmonella Health Risk (USA). 22 Sept 2020. Available from <https://www.fda.gov/safety/recalls-market-withdrawals-safety-alerts/real-pet-food-company-phoenix-az-voluntarily-recalls-one-lot-billymargot-wild-kangaroo-and>
[20] Potter et al (2011)
[21] Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport Committee, Dept of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, QoN 232 (Senator Rhiannon), Budget Estimates 2012-13, October 2012, Australian Senate. Available from < http://www.aph.gov.au/~/media/Estimates/Live/rrat_ctte/estimates/sup_1213/daff/food_division.ashx> [21 Aug 2015]. See also Macro Investments (Macro Meats) Letter to shooters (19 May 2012). Available here. See also Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport Committee, Dept of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Food Division, QoN232 (Senator Heffernan), Supplementary Budget Estimates 2012-12, Oct 2012, Australian Senate [available here].
[22] Community Affairs Committee, Department of Health, Population Health, QoN 406 (Senator Rhiannon). Budget Estimates 2015-16, 2 June 2015, Australian Senate. Available from < http://www.aph.gov.au/~/media/Committees/clac_ctte/estimates/bud_1516/Health/Answers/SQ15-000406.pdf> [21 August 2015].
[23] Potter et al (2011)
[24] Parameswaran N, O’Handley RM, Grigg ME, Fenwick SG, Thompson RCA (2009) Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in wild kangaroos using an ELISA Parasitology International, Parasitology International. 2009; 58:161-5.
[25] Australian Government Department of Agriculture. (29 March 2010) Meat Notice 2010/02 – Microbiological Testing of Wild Game Carcases and Products. Available from <www.agriculture.gov.au/SiteCollectionDocuments/aqis/exporting/meat/elmer3/index/methods-microbiological-test-meat/manual-microbiological-programs.pdf
> [24 Sept 2017]
[26] Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, answer to question on notice 160(5b), Senate Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport Committee, Additional Budget Estimates February 2013. Available from < http://www.aph.gov.au/~/media/Estimates/Live/rrat_ctte/estimates/add_1213/DAFF/food.pdf> [21 Aug 2015]
[27] The University of Chicago, Medicine. Infectious Diseases Toxoplasmosis Centre. About Toxoplasmosis. <http://www.uchospitals.edu/specialties/infectious-diseases/toxoplasmosis/about.html> [24 Sept 2017]
[28] Torrey EF, Yolken RH (2003) T.gondiiplasma gondii and Schizophrenia. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 9:11, Nov 2013. Available from <http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/9/11/03-0143_article.htm> [17 Aug 2015]. see also The Stanley Medical Research Institute's Laboratory of Developmental Neurovirology, T.gondii-Schizophrenia Research: Available from <http://www.stanleyresearch.org/patient-and-provider-resources/toxoplasmosis-schizophrenia-research/> [24 May 2019]
[29] Tenter AM, Heckeroth AR, Weiss LM (2000) Toxoplasma gondii: from animals to humans International Journal for Parasitology, 2000; 30:12-13,1217-1258
[30] Parameswaran et al (2009)
[31] Tenter AM (2009) Toxoplasma gondii in animals used for human consumption Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz [online]. 2009, vol.104, n.2 [cited 2015-08-17], pp. 364-369 . Available from: <http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000200033&lng=en&nrm=iso >
[32] Robson JMB, Wood RN, Sullivan JJ, Nicolaides NJ, Lewis BR (1995) A probable foodborne outbreak of toxoplasmosis. Commun Dis Intell 19:517-522
[33] Food Standards Australia New Zealand Agents of Foodborne Illness, Toxoplasma gondii. Available from <https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/publications/Documents/Toxoplasma%20gondii%20-%20jan%202014.pdf > [17 Aug 2015]
[34] European Commission, (16 Dec 2002) Council Directive 2002/99/EC Animal Products - Meat Products. Available from <http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1440390723507&uri=CELEX:32002L0099> [24 Aug 2015]
[35] Roo meat still contaminated, says rights group Lateline, television program, ABC TV, 27 Aug 2012. Available from <http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2012/s3577170.htm> [17 August 2015]
[36] Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Exports Division, answer to question on notice 60, Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport Committee, Australian Senate Additional Budget Estimates February 2015. Available here.
[37] Federal Service for Veterinary and Phytosanitory Surveillance news (25 July 2013) The Rosselkhoznadzor Detained a Kangaroo Meat Consignment of a Questionable Quality <http://www.fsvps.ru/fsvps/news/7137.html?_language=en>
[38] Tapp,V Russia bans kangaroo meat due to unacceptable levels of E.coli ABC Rural News, 19 Aug 2014. <http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-08-18/kangaroo-meat-ban/5677656 >
[39] Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Exports Division, answer to Question on Notice 104, Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport Committee, Australian Senate Budget Estimates May 2015. Available here.
[40] Ezeglos S, Huang B, Stuttard E A Survey of the Microbiological Quality of Kangaroo Carcasses Processed for Human Consumption in Two Processing Plants in Queensland, Australia Journal of Food Protection 2007;70:1249-51
[41] Holds et al (2008)
[42] Ben-Ami pers comm
[43] Koeth et al (2013) Intestinal microbiota metabolism of l-carnitine, a nutrient in red meat, promotes atherosclerosis Nature Medicine, Advanced Online Publication, 8 April 2013. Available from <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3650111/> [24 Sept 2017]
[44] Australian Science Media Centre (5 April 2013) Round-up: Heart disease and red meat (Nature Medicine*) – experts respond <http://www.smc.org.au/round-up-heart-disease-and-red-meat-nature-medicine-experts-respond/>
[45] Medew J (8 April 2012) Kangaroo meat not as healthy as you think Sydney Morning Herald. Available at <http://www.smh.com.au/national/kangaroo-meat-not-as-healthy-as-you-think-20130408-2hgyx.html> [17 Aug 2015]
[46] Malik R & Sibraa D (2005) Thiamine deficiency due to sulphur dioxide preservative in ‘pet meat’ – a case of déjà vu Australian Veterinary Journal. 83:7 July 2005 408-411